Fig. 1

Extrinsic and intrinsic factors that regulate osteoblastogenesis. Biomechanical signals, such as mechanical stress, compression, and fluid shear stress, are crucial in regulating osteoblastogenesis. Bone tissue is constantly subjected to mechanical forces, and cells within the bone microenvironment are sensitive to these stimuli. For example, osteoblasts (OB) and osteoclasts (OC) are responsive to mechanical loading, which influences their activity. Compression forces can promote osteoblast differentiation, while fluid shear stress (the force exerted by the flow of interstitial fluid in response to mechanical loading) affects both osteoblast and osteoclast function. These biomechanical signals are crucial in adapting bone structure and function to the mechanical demands placed on it. In addition, the cellular interactions during osteoblastogenesis are intricate and multi-directional. Endothelial cells (ECs), which line blood vessels, play a key role in regulating the vascular environment and can influence osteoblast and osteoclast activity. Osteoclasts, which are the cells responsible for bone resorption, interact with osteoblasts in a balanced manner to ensure that bone homeostasis is maintained. Macrophages (MPs) play a vital role in the immune response within bone tissue, and their interactions modulate osteoblastogenesis. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) differentiate into osteoblasts, through cell signalling networks involving the Wnt, bone morphogenic proteins (BMPs), Hedgehog (Hh), Notch, and fibroblast growth factors (FGF) pathways. The image was created using Canva: https://www.canva.com/