Table 1 Comparison of preparation characteristics, clinical advantages, technical limitations, and application directions of exosomes from different MSC sources

AMSCs

Minimally invasive collection, higher purification yield, lower immunogenicity

Abundant sources, suitable for autologous transplantation, good stability

Donor age impact, unstable extraction efficiency

Acute liver injury, Inflammatory liver disease

BMSCs

Not easily inactivated, low pathogen infection rate

Wide application, strong immune regulatory ability

Collection is traumatic, Difficult to mass produce

Liver transplantation, immune-related diseases

UCMSCs

Non-invasive collection

No ethical controversy, strong proliferation ability

Relatively easy to obtain, Allogeneic properties

Acute liver failure, neonatal liver diseases

iPSC-MSCs

Controllable production, Scalable preparation

Unlimited source, Features can be customized

High cost, Complex quality control

Personalized therapy